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General Language Changes


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General Language Changes
A D V E R T I S E M E N T

A number of CLR language features changed from Managed Extensions for C++ to Visual C++ 2008.

The changes described in this section are a sort of language miscellany. It includes a change in the handling of string literals, a change in the overload resolution between an ellipsis and the Param attribute, the change of typeof to typeid, a change in the calling of constructor initializer lists, and the introduction of a new cast notation, that of safe_cast.

String Literal
Discusses how the handling of string literals has changed.
Param Array and Ellipsis
Discusses how ParamArray is now given precedence over the ellipsis () for resolving function calls with varying numbers of arguments.
typeof Goes to T::typeid
Discusses how the typeof operator has been supplanted by typeid.
Initializer Lists
Discusses changes in the calling order of initializer lists.
Cast Notation and Introduction of safe_cast<>
Discusses changes to cast notation and in particular the introduction of safe_cast.
String Literal

The handling of string literals has changed from Managed Extensions for C++ to Visual C++ 2008.

In the Managed Extensions for C++ language design, a managed string literal was indicated by prefacing the string literal with an S. For example:

Copy Code
String *ps1 = "hello";
String *ps2 = S"goodbye";

The performance overhead between the two initializations turns out to be non-trivial, as the following CIL representation demonstrates as seen through ildasm:

Copy Code
// String *ps1 = "hello";
ldsflda    valuetype $ArrayType$0xd61117dd
     modopt([Microsoft.VisualC]Microsoft.VisualC.IsConstModifier) 
     '?A0xbdde7aca.unnamed-global-0'

newobj instance void [mscorlib]System.String::.ctor(int8*)
stloc.0

// String *ps2 = S"goodbye";
ldstr      "goodbye"
stloc.0

That’s a remarkable savings for just remembering (or learning) to prefix a literal string with an S. In the new syntax, the handling of string literals is made transparent, determined by the context of use. The S no longer needs to be specified.

What about cases in which we need to explicitly direct the compiler to one interpretation or another? In these cases, we apply an explicit cast. For example:

Copy Code
f( safe_cast("ABC") );

Moreover, the string literal now matches a String with a simple conversion rather than a standard conversion. While this may not sound like much it changes the resolution of overloaded function sets which include a String and a const char* as competing formal parameters. The resolution that once resolved to a const char* instance is now flagged as ambiguous. For example:

Copy Code
ref struct R {
   void f(const char*);
   void f(String^);
};

int main () {
   R r;
   // old syntax: f( const char* );
   // new syntax: error: ambiguous
   r.f("ABC"); 
}

Why is there a difference? Since more than one instance named f exists within the program, this requires the function overload resolution algorithm to be applied to the call. The formal resolution of an overload function involves three steps.

  1. The collection of the candidate functions. The candidate functions are those methods within the scope that lexically match the name of the function being invoked. For example, since f() is invoked through an instance of R, all named functions f that are not a member of R (or of its base class hierarchy) are not candidate functions. In our example, there are two candidate functions. These are the two member functions of R named f. A call fails during this phase if the candidate function set is empty.
  2. The set of viable functions from among the candidate functions. A viable function is one that can be invoked with the arguments specified in the call, given the number of arguments and their types. In our example, both candidate functions are also viable functions. A call fails during this phase if the viable function set is empty.
  3. Select the function that represents the best match of the call. This is done by ranking the conversions applied to transform the arguments to the type of the viable function parameters. This is relatively straight-forward with a single parameter function; it becomes somewhat more complex when there are multiple parameters. A call fails during this phase if there is no best match. That is, if the conversions necessary to transform the type of the actual argument to the type of the formal parameter are equally good. The call is flagged as ambiguous.

In Managed Extensions, the resolution of this call invoked the const char* instance as the best match. In the new syntax, the conversion necessary to match "abc" to const char* and String^ are now equivalent – that is, equally good – and so the call is flagged as bad – that is, as ambiguous.

This leads us to two questions:

  • What is the type of the actual argument, "abc"?
  • What is the algorithm for determining when one type conversion is better than another?

The type of the string literal "abc" is const char[4] – remember, there is an implicit null terminating character at the end of every string literal.

The algorithm for determining when one type conversion is better than another involves placing the possible type conversions in a hierarchy. Here is my understanding of that hierarchy – all these conversions, of course, are implicit. Using an explicit cast notation overrides the hierarchy similar to the way parentheses overrides the usual operator precedence of an expression.

  1. An exact match is best. Surprisingly, for an argument to be an exact match, it does not need to exactly match the parameter type; it just needs to be close enough. This is the key to understanding what is going on in this example, and how the language has changed.
  2. A promotion is better than a standard conversion. For example, promoting a short int to an int is better than converting an int into a double.
  3. A standard conversion is better than a boxing conversion. For example, converting an int into a double is better that boxing an int into an Object.
  4. A boxing conversion is better than an implicit user-defined conversion. For example, boxing an int into an Object is better than applying a conversion operator of a SmallInt value class.
  5. An implicit user-defined conversion is better than no conversion at all. An implicit user-defined conversion is the last exit before Error (with the caveat that the formal signature might contain a param array or ellipsis at that position).

So, what does it mean to say that an exact match isn't necessarily exactly a match? For example, const char[4] does not exactly match either const char* or String^, and yet the ambiguity of our example is between two conflicting exact matches!

An exact match, as it happens, includes a number of trivial conversions. There are four trivial conversions under ISO-C++ that can be applied and still qualify as an exact match. Three are referred to as lvalue transformations. A fourth type is called a qualification conversion. The three lvalue transformations are treated as a better exact match than one requiring a qualification conversion.

One form of the lvalue transformation is the native-array-to-pointer conversion. This is what is involved in matching a const char[4] to const char*. Therefore, the match of f("abc") to f(const char*) is an exact match. In the earlier incarnations of our language, this was the best match, in fact.

For the compiler to flag the call as ambiguous, therefore, requires that the conversion of a const char[4] to a String^ also be an exact match through a trivial conversion. This is the change that has been introduced in the new language version. And this is why the call is now flagged as ambiguous.

Param Array and Ellipsis

Precedence of the param array for resolving overloaded function calls has changed from Managed Extensions for C++ to Visual C++ 2008.

In both Managed Extensions and the new syntax, there is no explicit support for the param array that C# and Visual Basic support. Instead, one flags an ordinary array with an attribute, as follows:

Copy Code
void Trace1( String* format, [ParamArray]Object* args[] );
void Trace2( String* format, Object* args[] );

While these both look the same, the ParamArray attribute tags this for C# or other CLR languages as an array taking a variable number of elements with each invocation. The change in behavior in programs between Managed Extensions and the new syntax is in the resolution of an overloaded function set in which one instance declares an ellipsis and a second declares a ParamArray attribute, as in the following example provided by Artur Laksberg.

Copy Code
int foo(...); // 1
int foo( [ParamArray] Int32[] ); // 2

In Managed Extensions, the ellipsis was given precedence over the attribute which is reasonable since the attribute is not a formal aspect of the language. However, in the new syntax, the param array is now supported directly within the language, and it is given precedence over the ellipsis because it is more strongly typed. Thus, in Managed Extensions, the call

Copy Code
foo( 1, 2 );

resolves to foo(…) while in the new syntax, it resolves to the ParamArray instance. On the off chance that your program behavior depends on the invocation of the ellipsis instance over that of the ParamArray, you will need to modify either the signature or the call.

typeof Goes to T::typeid

The typeof operator used in Managed Extensions for C++ has been supplanted by the typeid keyword in Visual C++ 2008.

In Managed Extensions, the __typeof() operator returns the associated Type* object when passed the name of a managed type. For example:

Copy Code
// Creates and initializes a new Array instance.
Array* myIntArray = 
   Array::CreateInstance( __typeof(Int32), 5 );

In the new syntax, __typeof has been replaced by an additional form of typeid that returns a Type^ when a managed type is specified.

Copy Code
// Creates and initializes a new Array instance.
Array^ myIntArray = 
   Array::CreateInstance( Int32::typeid, 5 );
 
Initializer Lists

Initializer lists in constructors are now called before the base class constructor.



Remarks

Prior to Visual C++ 2005, the base class constructor was called before the initializer list when compiling with Managed Extensions for C++. Now, when compiling with /clr, the initializer list is called first.

Cast Notation and Introduction of safe_cast<>

The cast notation has changed from Managed Extensions for C++ to Visual C++ 2008.

Modifying an existing structure is a different and more difficult experience than crafting the initial structure. There are fewer degrees of freedom, and the solution tends towards a compromise between an ideal restructuring and what is practicable given the existing structural dependencies.

Language extension is another example. Back in the early 1990s as Object-Orienting programming became an important paradigm, the need for a type-safe downcast facility in C++ became pressing. Downcasting is the user-explicit conversion of a base-class pointer or reference to a pointer or reference of a derived class. Downcasting requires an explicit cast. The reason is that the actual type of the base class pointer is an aspect of the runtime; the compiler therefore cannot check it. Or, to rephrase that, a downcast facility, just like a virtual function call, requires some form of dynamic resolution. This raises two questions:

  • Why should a downcast be necessary in the Object-Oriented paradigm? Isn’t the virtual function mechanism sufficient? That is, why can’t one claim that any need for a downcast (or a cast of any sort) is a design failure?
  • Why should support of a downcast be a problem in C++? After all, it is not a problem in object-oriented languages such as Smalltalk (or, subsequently, Java and C#)? What is it about C++ that makes supporting a downcast facility difficult?

A virtual function represents a type-dependent algorithm common to a family of types. (We are not considering interfaces, which are not supported in ISO-C++ but are available in CLR programming and which represent an interesting design alternative). The design of that family is typically represented by a class hierarchy in which there is an abstract base class declaring the common interface (the virtual functions) and a set of concrete derived classes which represent the actual family types in the application domain.

A Light hierarchy in a Computer Generated Imagery (CGI) application domain, for example, will have common attributes such as color, intensity, position, on, off, and so on. One can control several lights, by using the common interface without worrying whether a particular light is a spotlight, a directional light, a non-directional light (think of the sun), or perhaps a barn-door light. In this case, downcasting to a particular light-type to exercise its virtual interface is unnecessary. In a production environment, however, speed is essential. One might downcast and explicitly invoke each method if by doing so inline execution of the calls can be performed instead of using the virtual mechanism.

So, one reason to downcast in C++ is to suppress the virtual mechanism in return for a significant gain in runtime performance. (Note that the automation of this manual optimization is an active area of research. However, it is more difficult to solve than replacing the explicit use of the register or inline keyword.)

A second reason to downcast falls out of the dual nature of polymorphism. One way to think of polymorphism is being divided into a passive and dynamic pair of forms.

A virtual invocation (and a downcast facility) represents dynamic uses of polymorphism: one is performing an action based on the actual type of the base class pointer at that particular instance in the execution of the program.

Assigning a derived class object to its base class pointer, however, is a passive form of polymorphism; it is using the polymorphism as a transport mechanism. This is the main use of Object, for example, in pre-generic CLR programming. When used passively, the base class pointer chosen for transport and storage typically offers an interface that is too abstract. Object, for example, provides roughly five methods through its interface; any more specific behavior requires an explicit downcast. For example, if we want to adjust the angle of our spotlight or its rate of fall off, we would have to downcast explicitly. A virtual interface within a family of sub-types cannot practicably be a superset of all the possible methods of its many children, and so a downcast facility will always be needed within an object-oriented language.

If a safe downcast facility is needed in an object-oriented language, then why did it take C++ so long to add one? The problem is in how to make the information as to the run-time type of the pointer available. In the case of a virtual function, the run-time information is set up in two parts by the compiler:

  • The class object contains an additional virtual table pointer member (either at the beginning or end of the class object; that’s has an interesting history in itself) that addresses the appropriate virtual table. For example, a spotlight object addresses a spotlight virtual table, a directional light, a directional light virtual table, and so on
  • Each virtual function has an associated fixed slot in the table, and the actual instance to invoke is represented by the address stored within the table. For example, the virtual Light destructor might be associated with slot 0, Color with slot 1, and so on. This is an efficient if inflexible strategy because it is set up at compile-time and represents a minimal overhead.

The problem, then, is how to make the type information available to the pointer without changing the size of C++ pointers, either by adding a second address or by directly adding some sort of type encoding. This would not be acceptable to those programmers (and programs) that decide not to use the object-oriented paradigm – which was still the predominant user community. Another possibility was to introduce a special pointer for polymorphic class types, but this would be confusing, and make it difficult to inter-mix the two, particularly with issues of pointer arithmetic. It would also not be acceptable to maintain a run-time table that associates each pointer with its currently associated type, and dynamically updating it.

The problem then is a pair of user communities which have different but legitimate programming aspirations. The solution has to be a compromise between the two communities, allowing each not only their aspiration but the ability to interoperate. This means that the solutions offered by either side are likely to be infeasible and the solution implemented finally to be less than perfect. The actual resolution revolves around the definition of a polymorphic class: a polymorphic class is one that contains a virtual function. A polymorphic class supports a dynamic type-safe downcast. This solves the maintain-the-pointer-as-address problem because all polymorphic classes contain that additional pointer member to their associated virtual table. The associated type information, therefore, can be stored in an expanded virtual table structure. The cost of the type-safe downcast is (almost) localized to users of the facility.

The next issue with the type-safe downcast was its syntax. Because it is a cast, the original proposal to the ISO-C++ committee used the unadorned cast syntax, as in this example:

Copy Code
spot = ( SpotLight* ) plight;

but this was rejected by the committee because it did not allow the user to control the cost of the cast. If the dynamic type-safe downcast has the same syntax as the previously unsafe but static cast notation, then it becomes a substitution, and the user has no ability to suppress the runtime overhead when it is unnecessary and perhaps too costly.

In general, in C++, there is always a mechanism by which to suppress compiler-supported functionality. For example, we can turn off the virtual mechanism by either using the class scope operator (Box::rotate(angle)) or by invoking the virtual method through a class object (rather than a pointer or reference of that class). This latter suppression is not required by the language but is a quality of implementation issue, similar to the suppression of the construction of a temporary in a declaration of the form:

Copy Code
// compilers are free to optimize away the temporary
X x = X::X( 10 );

So the proposal was taken back for further consideration, and several alternative notations were considered, and the one brought back to the committee was of the form (?type), which indicated its undetermined – that is, dynamic nature. This gave the user the ability to toggle between the two forms – static or dynamic – but no one was too pleased with it. So it was back to the drawing board. The third and successful notation is the now standard dynamic_cast, which was generalized to a set of four new-style cast notations.

In ISO-C++, dynamic_cast returns 0 when applied to an inappropriate pointer type, and throws a std::bad_cast exception when applied to a reference type. In Managed Extensions for C++, applying dynamic_cast to a managed reference type (because of its pointer representation) always returned 0. __try_cast was introduced as an analog to the exception throwing variant of the dynamic_cast, except that it throws System::InvalidCastException if the cast fails.

Copy Code
public __gc class ItemVerb;
public __gc class ItemVerbCollection {
public:
   ItemVerb *EnsureVerbArray() [] {
      return __try_cast
         (verbList->ToArray(__typeof(ItemVerb *)));
   }
};

In the new syntax, __try_cast has been recast as safe_cast. Here is the same code fragment in the new syntax:

Copy Code
public ref class ItemVerb;
public ref class ItemVerbCollection {
public:
   array^ EnsureVerbArray() {
      return safe_cast^>
         ( verbList->ToArray( ItemVerb::typeid ));
   }
};

In the managed world, it is important to allow for verifiable code by limiting the ability of programmers to cast between types in ways that leave the code unverifiable. This is a critical aspect of the dynamic programming paradigm represented by the new syntax. For this reason, instances of old-style casts are recast internally as run-time casts, so that, for example:

Copy Code
// internally recast into the 
// equivalent safe_cast expression above
( array^ ) verbList->ToArray( ItemVerb::typeid ); 

On the other hand, because polymorphism provides both an active and a passive mode, it is sometimes necessary to perform a downcast just to gain access to the non-virtual API of a subtype. This can occur, for example, with the member(s) of a class that want to address any type within the hierarchy (passive polymorphism as a transport mechanism) but for which the actual instance within a particular program context is known. In this case, having a run-time check of the cast can be an unacceptable overhead. If the new syntax is to serve as the managed systems programming language, it must provide some means of allowing a compile-time (that is, static) downcast. That is why the application of the static_cast notation is allowed to remain a compile-time downcast:

Copy Code
// ok: cast performed at compile-time. 
// No run-time check for type correctness
static_cast< array^>(verbList->ToArray(ItemVerb::typeid));

The problem is that there is no way to guarantee that the programmer doing the static_cast is correct and well-intentioned; that is, there is no way to force managed code to be verifiable. This is a more urgent concern under the dynamic program paradigm than under native, but is not sufficient within a system programming language to disallow the user the ability to toggle between a static and run-time cast.

There is a performance trap and pitfall in the new syntax, however. In native programming, there is no difference in performance between the old-style cast notation and the new-style static_cast notation. But in the new syntax, the old-style cast notation is significantly more expensive than the use of the new-style static_cast notation. The reason is that the compiler internally transforms the use of the old-style notation into a run-time check that throws an exception. Moreover, it also changes the execution profile of the code because it causes an uncaught exception bringing down the application – perhaps wisely, but the same error would not cause that exception if the static_cast notation were used. One might argue this will help prod users into using the new-style notation. But only when it fails; otherwise, it will cause programs that use the old-style notation to run significantly slower without a visible understanding of why, similar to the following C programmer pitfalls:

Copy Code
// pitfall # 1: 
// initialization can remove a temporary class object, 
// assignment cannot
Matrix m;
m = another_matrix;

// pitfall # 2: declaration of class objects far from their use
Matrix m( 2000, 2000 ), n( 2000, 2000 );
if ( ! mumble ) return;


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